A content analysis of tobacco, alcohol, and drug use imagery in Hindi movies on popular streaming platforms

INTRODUCTION

Audio-visual media (including radio, movies, and TV shows) are efficient modes of mass communication. They influence the dissemination of health information and impact health-related priorities. Media campaigns operate through both direct and indirect pathways to influence the behavior of entire populations.¹ Audio-visual media impact health behavior either way, i.e., they can promote unhealthy or healthy behavior depending on the content that is portrayed. Tobacco and alcohol imagery presented in the media is associated with increased use of these substances among adolescents.^2,3 Conversely, successful health promotion campaigns using audio-visual media have been deployed in disparate fields of cardiovascular disease, nutrition, reproductive health, and the prevention of HIV/AIDS.^4-7 However, far more studies have been published about media campaigns on tobacco use than on any other health-related issue, and, consequently, the evidence for benefit is strong.⁸ There is substantial evidence that the portrayal of tobacco in the media increases uptake and subsequent use in adolescents.^9,10 In line with this proof, the World Health Organization’s Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) requires countries to provide widely accessible, comprehensive information about the addictiveness, risks, and harms of exposure to tobacco smoke.¹¹ In India, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW) introduced rules to eliminate tobacco imagery in films and television in 2012. As of 2022, all films with tobacco imagery require strong editorial justification, anti-tobacco messages produced by the MoHFW, and a static health warning at the bottom of the screen during tobacco imagery display.¹² The result was that, in 2015, less than 48% of top-grossing movies had tobacco imagery compared with 89% in 2005.¹² The rules have been arguably successful, with up to 70% of respondents having noticed an anti-tobacco message in the last 30 days.¹³ A Substantial amount of alcohol and narcotic content in movies is frequently portrayed through actual or implied use, often without warning messages. It normalizes risky behaviors, influences young audiences, and raises concerns regarding their potential impact on the youth’s attitudes and practices. However, the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, coupled with increasing internet penetration, has brought about a sea of change in the methods of consumption of mass media.¹⁴ The OTT (Over The Top) market is experiencing a surge in demand for on-demand content.

India’s OTT consumers are favoring localized content and diverse genres over traditional television programming, with an average revenue projected to reach US$4.49bn in 2025. At present, the user penetration in India is around 35.8% and is expected to hit 42.2% by 2029 with 634.3 million users. The average revenue per user (ARPU) in India amounts to US$8.61 in 2025.¹⁵ The share of OTT platforms vis-à-vis theatre is increasing, and approximately 30% Indians reported OTT platforms to be their primary mode of consumption of media. The major trending OTT platforms in India are Disney+ Hotstar, Zee5, Amazon Prime Video, Sony LIV, and Netflix, with a combined market share of more than 70%. More significantly, major consumers of OTT platforms are the youth who belong to the 24-34 age group of the total viewership.¹⁶ The rise of OTT platforms has brought into the limelight the portrayal of substance use imagery on these platforms. Article 13 of the FCTC prohibits cross-border advertisements of tobacco products. In response to this, the Internet and Mobile Association of India (a key industry group) created a voluntary ‘Code of Best Practices for Online Curated Content Providers’, including a complaint mechanism.^17,18 Such regulation is also prevalent in other countries like Europe, Singapore, Australia, and Turkey.^19,20 However, unlike the Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC), which has set up strict regulations on the display of substance use and surrogate advertising, the Indian code is voluntary.^10,21 As a matter of concern, at present, there is no official legislative body to regulate censorship on the OTT platforms in India.²² The Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (MIB), India, has repeatedly cautioned and demanded that the OTT content not glamorize or promote the consumption of narcotics or psychotropic substances.²³ Rigorous examination of OTT platforms in the UK and Europe has reported that OTT platforms portray more alcohol and tobacco imagery in web series than broadcast television.²⁰ Such studies are lacking in India.

The paper attempts to address this research gap by methodically quantifying the portrayal of tobacco, alcohol, or any other narcotic use in movies of VOD (Video on Demand)/OTT services presented to viewers.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

RESULTS

We coded a total runtime of 5991 minutes into independent substance use types, namely tobacco, alcohol, and other drugs/narcotics. The list of movies and their relevant descriptive data has been shared in the supplementary file. Most of the top-watched movies aired on Netflix (n=21, 45.7%). Drama (67%), followed by thriller (43.5%), and comedy (32.6%) were the most common genres watched. The CFBC certification, as per Indian Government guidelines, is allotted to movies produced and telecast on media platforms, i.e, OTT or theatrical releases are categorized as A (adults only), UA (unrestricted with parental guidance), U (universal), and S (special), along with further classification in the UA category as per age-defined criteria. The selected OTT platforms did not display the CFBC certificates except Amazon Prime. The movies included categories belonging to A (n=9,19.6%), UA 16+ (n=22, 47,8%), UA 13+ (n=12, 26.1%), and UA 7+ (n=3, 6.5%). The mean runtime of the movies was 130.23 minutes (SD=14.64), ranging from 69 to 157 minutes. 20 (43.4%) movies failed to display any initial warning disclaimer messages, irrespective of their content, with the portrayal of substance use. The remaining movies displayed variable warning messages, including smoking/tobacco use (n=8, 17%), alcohol use (n=3, 6.5%), tobacco/smoking in conjunction with alcohol (n=7, 15.2%), and general substance use/all narcotics (n=8, 17.4%). The total mean duration of substance use demonstrated in all movies is 7.18 minutes (SD=10.05).

DISCUSSION

The findings from the content analysis of 46 top-viewed Indian OTT movies between 2022 and 2024 reveal a concerning prevalence of substance use imagery. Alcohol was depicted in 76%, tobacco in 43%, and narcotics in 17% of the movies. The average screen time for alcohol use was notably high at 6.74 minutes per movie, with tobacco and narcotic depictions also receiving substantial visual emphasis. As the results demonstrate, most of these portrayals were often devoid of disclaimers or health warnings, especially on platforms like Netflix. This pattern raises serious concerns about the effectiveness and enforcement of India’s regulatory framework for digital content. The CBFC faces challenges in the governance and enforcement of strict guidelines on substance use portrayal, or surrogate advertising. The legal foundation for the tobacco regulations lies in Section 5 of the Cigarettes and Other Tobacco Products Act (COTPA), 2003, which prohibits direct and surrogate advertising.²⁷ With respect to the depiction of alcohol and narcotics, it is primarily governed by the Cinematograph Act of 1952 and the Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules of 2021.²⁸ However, previously, the OTT platforms operated in a regulatory vacuum. The lack of a centralized censorship authority for OTT content further complicated the enforcement oversight.

The OTT-specific amendments need to extend this protection to all registered digital platforms, recognizing their growing influence—particularly among children, adolescents, and youth, who dominate viewership demographics. Thus, India became the first country to mandate anti-tobacco warnings for OTT content, aligning it with theatrical and television standards under the MoHFW ‘s ‘2023 OTT Rules.’ These rules, effective from September 1, 2023, mandated 30-second non-skippable health spots and 20-second audio-visual disclaimers for tobacco imagery immediately after launching the application.²⁹ Despite this, compliance remains inconsistent. A study conducted in 2024 found that tobacco imagery in Indian OTT shows was still prevalent and often non-compliant with the new rules.³⁰ Notable studies reinforce the psychological impact of substance use imagery. Yadav and Sharma (2024) demonstrated that repeated exposure to such content, primarily when associated with protagonists, leads to observational learning among adolescents, reinforces risky behaviors, and diminishes perceived harm. This aligns with Bandura’s social learning theory, which posits that individuals model behaviors seen in influential media figures.³¹ Pulicherla and Kodali (2024) further found that tobacco imagery was present in all web series and most movies analyzed, with none fully complying with India’s tobacco control policies.³²

Countries like South Korea, Thailand, and Mexico have emerged to provide severe ratings to movies with drug use.³³ MIB has recently issued an advisory in November 2024, urging OTT platforms to avoid glamorizing narcotic drug use due to its influence on youth. Grounded in the IT Rules (2021) and NDPS Act (1985), the advisory mandates stringent content classification, audio-visual disclaimers, and onscreen health warnings for shows depicting drug use. The advisory mandates platforms to compulsorily ensure portrayals do not normalize, glorify, or promote substance abuse with legal compliance. While promoting accountability, the advisory also raises concerns about creative limitations and lacks detailed enforcement criteria.³⁴ Few policy-based interventions to curb the glamorization of substance use on Indian OTT platforms have been implemented at the institutional level. Novel strategies can include age-gating, AI flagging, behavioral nudges, creative incentives, youth media literacy, public-private health messaging, and transparent reporting. These measures can balance creative freedom with public health, fostering informed media consumption and responsible storytelling.

CONCLUSION

The depiction of patterns of substance use in Indian OTT content from 2022 to 2024 presents a significant public health challenge. While the regulatory frameworks have evolved, their implementation and impact lag behind. Strengthening enforcement mechanisms, enhancing media literacy, and fostering industry accountability are essential to mitigate the influence of glamorized substance use. Future research should explore longitudinal effects on viewer behavior and assess the role of disclaimers in altering consumption patterns.